Biological Molecules

:DEFINITIONS:(part 1):

 Biochemistry:

The branch of biology which deals with the biochemical basis of life.

There are six bio molecules i.e hydrogen, nitrogen,sulphur ,phosphorus, oxygen, carbon.They form approximately 98% of the bio- molecules.

Macro molecules:

Molecule which form the structure of the and carry out all the process of the cells are large in size and highly organized molecule is termed as MACRO MOLECULE or POLYMERS.

Monomers:

The sub unit of macro molecule is termed as MONOMERS.

Condensation:

The process of joining two monomers by removing water molecule is termed as Condensation.

                  BIOENERGETICS

• BIOENERGETIC :-study of quantitative study of energy relationships and conversions in biological system

• 1 photon of light excites one electron. 

• *The oxygen we breathe is the product of PS2 

• *Process of generation of ATP both in chloroplast and mitochondria is chemiosmosis. 

• *There is net gain of 19AtP from one molecule of glycerol 

• *In krebs cycle for every one molecule of glucose broken down two Acetyl-CoA molecules are formed 

• *In glycolysis two molecules of NADPH and two molecules of ATP are produced 

• *Inability of oxidative metabolism of the reduced products i.e lactic acid causes a condition called oxygen debt. 

͢   its during extreme fatigue conditions. this debt ends when the metabolism that produces reduced products i.e lactic acid slows down. (courtesy by Book glossary given at the end) 

• Cytochrome = any of the iron containing protein that acts as a carries in ETC.so according to this defination

Ferridoxin (iron containing protein) can also be called Cytochrome.(courtesy by book glossary given at the end) 

• *Oxidation of one molecule of glucose gives = 36 ATPin which 34 Atp are produced in ETC while 2 in 

• Cytoplasm. 

• *Glycolysis = 2atp used , 4made, 2 net gain

*krebs cycle = 2 atp made 

• ETC = 34 atp made 

• *Total in aerobic respiration = 36/38 agr Q men dono options hon then 36 ko prefer krna hy. 

• *Total in cellular respiration = 38/40 Agr Q men dono options hon then 38 ko prefer krna hy. 

• *****Glycolysis**** 

• 2NaDH2 or FADH2 are formed.2Atps are realeased. 

• Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm 

• ***Formtion of Acetyl CoA.*** 

• 2NADH2 or FADH2 are formed.No atp is released. 

• ***Krebs cycle*** 

• 6NADH2+2FADH2and 2atps are released 

Krebs cycle citric acid cycle tricarboxylic acid cycle 

• Krebs occur in mitochondria

• ***Electron transport chain*** 

• Total NADH2 = 10 (Each NADH2 molecule gives 3 atps)Total FADH2 = 2 (Each FADH2 gives 2 Atp)so no of atps 

30+4 = 34 

• ***Total 38 possible atp molecules are formed during breakdown of one glucose molecule. But practically 36 

molecules are formed. The glycolysis produces NADH2 in cytosol. 2 atp molecules are used for bringing these 

NADH2 to mitochondria. So 38-2 = 36Atp 

• Atp---> Adp + pi= 7.3kcal or 31kj 

• Endergonic= energy gaining 

• Exergonic= energy releasing 

• Photosynthesis= anabolic 

• Respiration= catabolic 

• Carotene ....orange 

• Phaelophytin ....grey 

• Xanthophyll.. ..yellow 

• Chlorophyll a .....blue green 

• Chlorophyll B .......yellow green 

• Chl a .....C55H72O5N4Mg

 Chl b.... C55H70O6N4Mg 

• Carotene absorbs green blue violet wavelength and reflects red yellow orange Light reac thylakoid membrane 

• Light independent reac stroma 

• Ps1 electron acceptor ferredoxin and electron donor plastocyanin 

• Ps2 electron accecptor phaeophytin and intermediate donor water splitting complex 

• Ps 1 and Atp synthase in non appresssed 

• Ps 2 in appressed alongwith lhc 2 (light harvesting complex) 

• Light reaction starts from ps2 

• Non cyclic ATP and Nadh2 both produced 

• Cyclic only Atp 

• Cyclic only involves Ps1 

• Dark reaction calvin benson cycle C3 cycle 

• 13 reactions 11 enzymes 

• Regeneration of RuBP involves enzyme 5-11 

• C4- sugar cane corn grass family 

• Light reaction cycles req for production of glucose in dark cycle 

• 6 light reactions 

• Cam - cacti pineapples 

• Oxidation of glucose= 673Kcal or 2823kj 

• Fermentation louis pasteur 

• Net gain of glycolysis 2Atp and 2nadh 

• Flavour of pickle- lactic and acetic acid 

• And overall net gain including glycolysis and etc 36 atp (check) 

• Net gain of kreb cycle 30 atp 

• Sun ----> producers 

• 0.2% 

• Producers---> primary consumers---> sec consumers---> ter consumers 

• 5-20% 

• Energy coming from sun 

• 40% reflected back 

• 15% absorbed by ozone 

• 45% to earth out of which 2-3% is used by plants 

• Energy transfer^

• Plastocyanin- copper containing protein 

• Plastoquinone- associated with ferrous ion

• As e goes down the chain , energy is lost and used for synthesis of ATP 

• Ferredoxin- iron containing protein 

• The path of e through 2 photosystems during non cyclic photophosporylation is known as Z-scheme 

• When Atp conc low- cyclic phosphorylation 

• In both cyclic and non cyclic- production of Atp- chemiosmosis 

• Calvin- nobel prize 1961 

• Rubisco- most abundant protein in chloroplast and most abundant protein on Earth 

• ""Cellulose- most abundant carbohydrate in nature- HEC PHASE 2 QUES"" 

• Starch - second most abundant carb in nature 

• G3P- formed in both cellular respiration and photosynthesis(dark reaction) 

• C3H4O3- Pyruvic acid 

• C3H6O3- Lactic acid 

• Glycolysis- splitting of sugar 

• The second and third phosphate are high energy bonds in ATP 

• Oxygen- not essential for glycolysis 

• The oxidation of phospho-glyceraldehyde (PGAL) is energy yielding process

• Acetyl CoA- active acetate 

• Acetyl- 2C 

• Citrate- 6C 

• Oxaloacetate- 4C 

• Fumerate- 4C 

• Alpha ketogluterate- 5C 

• Succinate- 4C 

• Malate- 4C 

• FAD(coenzyme)- oxidizing agent which is reduced to FADH2 

• Etc-

• Co enzyme Q--> Cyt a --> cyt c--> cyt a--> cyt a3 

• Nadh is oxidized by coenzyme Q 

• Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons in Etc and production of water takes place. 

• Atp- chemical link between catabolism and anabolism 

• Photosynthesis- energy capturing 

• Respiration- energy releasing 

• Solar energy --> food energy--> chemical energy

• Purple sulphur bacteria- bacterio-chlorophyll and carotenoids 

• Green sulphur- chlorobium chlorophyll

• NPK- 5,10,5 

• Nitrogen def 

• Chlorosis 

• Development of anthocyanin pigments 

• Early senescence 

• Phosphorous 

• Helps in translocation of carbs 

• Fruit ripening 

• Def 

• Necrotic patches 

• Cambial activity is checked 

• Potassium 

• Stomatal opening 

• Found in highest conc in meristematic cells 

• Activator for enzymes

• Def 

• Colour of leaves dull or bluish green 

• Irregular chlorosis 

• Magnesium 

• Phosphorous carrier in plant 

• Synthesis of fats and metabolism of carbs and phosphorous 

• Def 

• Chlorosis 

• Necrotic spots

• Silica-- grass 

• Cobalt- nitrogen fixing bacteria 

• Nickle- soyabean 

• Sodium- osmotic and ionic balance

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (01)

-:SKELETON:- 

OSTEOLOGY:- STUDY  OF  BONES / STUDY  OF  SKELETON

ENDOSKELETON:- 206 BONES

ON THE BASIS OF POSITION

1-AXIAL SKELETON

  (CENTRAL AXIS) (80)

★ SKULL :- (22 bones)

The skull is a fascinating structure

.CRANIUM :- (08 bones )

(BRAIN BOX)

Cranial bone are the ones that protect the brain

The cranium is made of a vault, as well as a base, and the base is divided into anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae.

PAIRED BONES :- ( 2 X 2 =4 bones )

→ PARIETAL  ( TOP )

→ TEMPORAL ( ABOVE EAR )

UNPAIRED BONES :- ( 1 x 4 = 4 bones )

→ FRONTAL ( FORE HEAD )

→ OCCIPETAL ( ABOVE THE V.C )

→ SPHENOID ( NEAR AROUND THE EYE ORBIT)

→ ETHMOID ( SITUATED AT THE ROOF OF NASAL CAVITY)

.FACIAL BONES :- (14 bones )

 facial bones are the ones that give structure to the face.

SUTURES  Most of the bones in the skull are flat bones, and in the cranium these are connected at serrated Lines

PAIRED BONES :- 

→ ZYGOMATIC ( O2 bones )

      (CHEEK BONES)

→ LACRYMAL  (02 bones )

→ NASAL (  NOSE BONE )

→ INFERIOR CONCHAE ( BOTTOM OF NASAL CAVITY)

→ MASILLAGE (UPPER JAW )

→ PALATINE BONE 

UNPAIRED BONES :-

→ VOMER 

→ DENTARY ( LOWER MOVEABLE JAW)

★ADDITIONAL BONES :-   

( 07 bones)

→ EAR BONES (3 X 2 = 06 bones )

→ HYOID BONE (01 bone )

      . INFRONT OF TRACHEA

      . PERMENANT IN MALE

-:VIRUS:-

• Virus can pass through porcelin fibres whereas bacterias cant 

• Wendell stanley crystallized viruses 

• Virus 20nm-250nm 

• No of capsomeres characteristic of a virus 

• TMV- helical or isometric having a rod like appearance 

• Antisepsis- procedures to reduce or eliminate possibility of infection 

• Rabies also called hydrophobia 

• Misuse of antibiotics 

• Penicillin- allergic reactions 

• Streptomycin- affect auditory nerve causing deafness 

• Tetracycline- discolouration of teeth 

• Species basic unit of classification

• Allium cepa- onion 

• Margulis and Schwartz modified Whittaker scheme by considering " cellular organization, mode of nutrition, cytology, genetics and organelles of symbiotic origin" 

• Bacteriophage= bacteria eater, disovered by Twort(1915) and D'Herelle(1917) 

• Pox virus 250nm 

• Parvovirus 20 nm 

• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites 

• Viruses are generally resistant to broad range of antibiotics 

• 162 capsomeres in herpes virus 

• 252 in adenovirus(cause common colds) 

• Icosahedral- having 20 faces 

• Helical are rod shaped 

• T2 and T4 are used in phage studies 

• Lysogenic virus: 

• Detachment of viral DNA from host's chromosome and beginning of lytic cycle is called induction 

• Mumps and measles develop immunity in their victims 

• Rna tumor virus- retrovirus-oncovirus 

• Hiv is host specified 

• Hepatitis A - infectious hepatitis, vaccine available 

• serum hepatitis, second major form, vaccine available

• non A non B hepatitis(former name), often leads to chronic liver disease, causes infusion hepatitis, less severe 

than H A and B, no vaccine is present for H C 

• delta hepatitis 

• Hepatitis E- can be caused by pig, transmitted through feaces of infected person 

• Viral hepatitis is of 7 types (A-G) 

• Bacteriophage - 5 diff proteins (tadpole) 

• Polio virus- spherical 

• Single stranded RNA- HIV 

• Double stranded DNA- Hepatitis B 

• Adsorption, injection, reproduction, lysis. 

• Lytic - virulent 

• Lysogenic- temperate 

• Tiny molecules of naked RNA- viroids(nuclear gene) 

• Infectious protein- prions, misfolded form of protein present in brain cells. 

• Aids discovered in 1985 

• Rabies discovered by louis pasteur 

• Rhabdo virus- rod shaped 

• Flu is caused by adeno virus(check) 

• Horizontal transmission - external source 

• Vertical - inherited from parents 

• Hiv affects T cells (T4 or helper) 

• "Aids involves defect in cell mediated immunity" 

• Skin cancer- kaposi's sarcoma 

• Septicemia- blood poisoning 

• Sumarin- antiparasitic drug 

• Hepatitis A- enveloped RNA virus, transmitted by feaces 

• ""Hepatitis B- serum hepatitis, unusual Dna virus(small circular molecule of partly double stranded Dna), 359 

nucleotides, viral genome encodes two proteins and Dna polymerase, also causes liver cancer, health problem 

among Asians, Africans and male homosexuals"" 

• Hepatitis C - mother to child during pregnancy

   PROKARYOTAE

• Bacteria 0.2 to 2 micron in breadth, 2 -10 micron in length  

• Bacteria- pioneers of cellular organization

• Volutine granules= intracytoplasmic storage form of complex inorganic polyphosphate 

• Flagella originate from basal body 

• Bacterial capsule is made up of polysaccharides and protein 

• Cell wall has peptidoglycan 

• Archaebacteria do not have peptidoglycan 

• Cell wall of archaebacteria- proteins, glycoproteins and polysaccharides

• Cell membrane in bacteria helps in respiration 

• Mesosomes also help in respiration , cell division, dna replication and export of enzyme 

• Plasmids provide resistance against antibiotics 

• Bacterial chlorophyll was discovered by Von Neil in 1930 

• Iron crystals are formed within bacterial cytoplasm 

• Conjugation - pilli- laderberg and tatum in 1946 

• Transduction - bacteriophage- laderberg and zinder 1952 

• Transformation- heat killed having effect on alive- fred griffith 1928 

• Riboflavin - vit B2 produced by clostridium 

• Vaccination - active immunization 

• Oral vaccine - polio 

• Injected vaccine- tetanus 

• Cyano bacteria pigments- chlorophyll a and phycocyanin 

• Single filament - trichome 

• Ribosomes pseudovacuoles and reserve food in form of cyanophyceae starch is present in nostoc 

• Nostoc- first colonizers of moist soil 

• Heterocyst- centre of nitrogen fixation

• Prokaryotic cell wall is composed of polysaccharide chains bound covalently to shorter chains of aminoacids 

forming peptidoglycan or murien. The entire wall is regarded as molecular comole called " sacculus"

• Bacteria called as animacules by Antony Van Leeuvenhook 

• Pasteur- made vaccines for anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies 

• Robert Koch- germ theory of disease 

• Smallest bacteria(mycoplasma) is the size of largest virus(pox virus) 

• Acanthrus nigrofuscus - Bacteria in brown surgeonfish-

 • True pilli are only present on gram negative bacteria 

• Pilli made up of protein pilin 

• Chromatin body of bacteria visible under light microscope after staining with "Feulgen stain" 

• Cysts are not heat resistant 

• Green, purple sulphur and purple non sulphur bacteria are photosynthetic 

• Pseudomonas(bacilli)- aerobic bacteria 

• Spirochete- anaerobic 

• E.coli- facultative anaerobic 

• Campylobacter- microaerophilic 

• Bacteria lack mitosis and traditional sexual repro 

• Sterilization- destruction of all life forms, generally gamma rays are used 

• Moist heat- coagulation of protein and kills microbes 

• Dry heat- oxidation of chem constituents of microbes and kills them 

• Antiseptics - Chemical substances used on living tissues that inhibit growth of microorganism

• Microbicidal- kills microbes immediately 

• Microbistatic- inhibits reproductive capacities and maintains microbial population at constant size

                         NUTRITION

• Parasitic plants   --  Haustoria

• Partial stem- Loranthus, Viscum, Cassytha filiformis 

• Total stem- Cuscuta 

• Partial  root - Sandalwood 

• Total stem- Orobanche, Cistanche, Striga

• Neotia(birds nest or orchid) and Monotrapa(indian pipe)- saprophytic plants 

• Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants are carnivorous 

• Dionea muscipula- Charles Darwin called it the most wonderful plant

• Sac like- enteron- one opening 

• Tube like- gut- two openings

• Daphnia- filter feeder

• Mytilus- common mussel

• Assimilation- ultimate goal of nutrition 

• Alimentary canal- 9m long 

• Gastric juice secreted by gastric mucosa 

• Erepsin- protein to aminoacids 

• Microvilli take in food by pinocytosis 

• Hydra- macrophagous- have glandular cells(for secretion of enzymes) and musco-elithelial cells(contraction of 

body wall which helps in circulation of food )- sac like - extra and intracellular digestion

• Planaria- carnivorous- sac type- branched intestine increasing the surface area for digestion, absorption and 

distribution of food- extra and intracellular digestion

• Cockroach- omnivorous- tubular- extracellular digestion- hepatic caeca lined by glandular cells Human digestive 

system- gastro intestinal tract 

• Gall bladder- cystic duct 

• Lower Jaw - is movably attached 

• Diphyodont - Two sets of teeth- 

• Thecodont - Embedded in gums-  

• Heterodont - Diff shapes and sizes- 

• Molars have no deciduous predecessors 

• Plaque- mixture of bacteria and salivary materials 

• Plaque+ chemicals in saliva- become calcified forming calculus

• 3 pairs of salivary glands - 1.5dm3 of saliva

• Oesophagus- 25 cm

• Cardiac and pylpric region of stomach- mucous glands 

• Zymogen cells- Pepsin 

• Oxyntic cells- HCl 

• Layers of stomach 

• Logitudinal muscle layer 

• Circular muscle layer 

• Oblique muscle layer 

• Serosa 

• Gastrin is produced by stomach in the presence of partially digested protein 

• Mixing waves move along the stomach- 20 sec 

• Small intestine- 6m 

• Duodenum- 30 cm 

• Bile - yellow in colour turns green on exposure to air 

• Secretin is produced by duodenum under the stimulus of HCl present with chyme

• Digestion of fat is completed in duodenum 

• Jejunum- 2.4m 

• Digestion of food is completed within the jejunum 

• Ileum- 3.6m 

• Receives food in solution form 

• Stored food is delivered to liver by hepatic portal vein

• Active transport is employed in the absorption of digested food 

• Large intestine- 1.5m 

• Appendix- 18cm 

• Symbiotic bacteria present in large intestine synthesize vit K 

 Skin largest organ 

•  Liver is the largest gland

Liver processes fatty acids and stores them as ketone bodies which are later released as nutrients for active muscles 

• Faeces- dead bacteria, cellulose, other plant fibres, dead mucosal cells, mucus, cholesterol, bile pigment 

derivatives and water

• Dysentery- caused by bacillary and amoebic infection 

• Piles- haemmorhoids, external piles- covered by skin and internal piles - lie beneath the anal mucous membrane 

• Food poisoning- gastro entritis 

• Salmonella common cause of food poisoning 

• Extreme protein deficiency- kwashiorker disease resulting in edema

• Anorexia nervosa- loss of apetite (young girls usually after puberty) 

• Bulimia nervosa- (women) eating binges 

• Successful parasite- live in host without causing harm 

• Taeniasis- taenia saginata 

• Enterobius vermicalaris- itching around anus 

• Facilitated diffusion- carrier proteins, forms a water filled pore in the membrane

ENZYME [2]

           ENZYME

"A biological catalyst (usually protein)"

SUBSTRATE :-

THE   REACTANT  MOLECULE  THAT  AN  ENZYME  WORK  ON.

ACTIVE SITE :-

THE  PART  OF  THE  ENZYME  WHERE  SUBSTRATE  BINDS

ENZYME [01]

          ENZYMES

• Enzymes are globular proteins 

• Enzymes simply dissolved in cytoplasm

• Co factor= bridge between enzyme and substrate 

• Prosthetic group = Non-protein part covalently bonded to enzyme

• Coenzyme = Loosely attached to protein part 

• Active site of enzymes= binding site+                                                 catalytic site 

           pH:-

• Pepsin 2 

• Sucrase 4.5 

• Enterokinase 5.5 

• Salivary amylase 6.8 

• Catalase 7.6 

• Chymotrypsin 7-8 

• Pancreatic lipase 9 

• Arginase 9.7 

• Chlorenchymatous cells carry out photosynthesis 

• Cell membrane 

• 60-80% protein 

• 20-40% lipids 

• Peptidoglycan= murien 

• Large and small subunit of ribosome attachment is controlled by Mg +2 ion 

• Old mitichondria digested by lysosomes by autophagy 

• Centrioles play a role in formation of cilia 

• Undifferentiated cells have 30000 nuclear pores per nucleus 

• Erythrocytes have 3-4pores/nucleus 

•     Chromosome  No :-

• Chimpanzee...48 

• Onion... 16 

• Potato....48

                       HOMEOSTASIS

HOMEO = BODY  OR  INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

STASIS  = SAME   OR  CONSTANT

                        DEFINITION:-

             -:  MAINTENANCE OF CONSTANT BODY CONDITION :-

MECHANISM  OF  HOMEOSTASIS

1. OSMOREGULATION        = REGULATION OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE

2. THERMOREGULATION  = REGULATION OF CONSTANT BODY                                                                               TEMPERATURE   

3. EXCRETION  =  REMOVAL OF NITROGENOUS METABOLIC WASTE